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DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, Vol. 1, January 2016, pp. 26-35 DOI: 10.14429/djlit.36.1.9198 © 2016, DESIDOC Received 3 September 2015, revised 14 December 2015, online published 22 January 2016 Nanotechnology Ontology: Semantic Access to Information in the Nano World Abhishek Sharma CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, Dr K.S. Krishnan Road, New Delhi - 110 012 E-mail: Scientific progress in a domain depends greatly on making use of results of previous research activities. Like human beings, it is difficult for computers to encode and retrieve the expanding web information. The basic answer to this problem is to describe the information explicitly and semantically with ontology. The article presents a brief discussion of the study undertaken to design an ontology for Nanotechnology, which was developed by using the Resource Description Framework (RDF).

Nanotechnology: A gentle introduction to the next big idea. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc, ISBN:. Owens (2003). Introduction to Nanotechnology, Wiley- Interscience, 1 st edition, ISBN-10: 3. John F Mongillo (2007), Nanotechnology 101, Greenwood Press,.

This paper further describes methodology opted to develop the Nanotechnology ontology, where a semantic structure of Nanotechnology thesaurus was utilised for its creation. The study has further presented the features of nMap software, which was developed specifically for the study by using VB.net as front-end tool and MS-access as back-end tool.

Outcome of the study offers a semantic knowledge structure to Nanotechnology researchers in machine readable environment. Further, development of ontology in RDF format serves interoperability and will further support semantic interpretation by machines to facilitate human understanding. Keywords: Ontology nanotechnology knowledge representation semantic web The web is a techno-social system through which interlinked and hypertext documents are accessed through internet 1.

It was created with an aim to enable anybody, anywhere, anytime to retrieve information. Sir Tim Berners-Lee was the one who created world’s first website in 1991 2.

Since 1991, there appeared an immense progress in the manner in which information is published and accessed on the web. On the basis of characteristics and features added, scholars defined various generations of web like web 1.0, web 2.0 and web 3.0 1, 3, 4, 5, 6. The concept ‘Semantic Web’ was envisioned by Tim Berners-Lee with an idea to design a web such that not only documents are linked together but meaning of information in web documents can also be recognised 6. Semantic web is considered as an extension of the current web where in addition to human understanding, the documents are marked with meta-information such that it can be processed with the help of machines. Unlike current web, it is not just for displaying the content, but for integrating and reusing of available information across various applications.

To achieve semantic web environment, ontologies serve as the central enabling technology 7.” Before initiating the work on building a new controlled vocabulary tool, it is essential to establish whether such tools exist for the domain or not 8. To investigate the existence of related works, a check in the literature particularly current and back issues of ‘Knowledge Organisation’, a quarterly publication of ‘International Society for Knowledge Organisation’ (ISKO) as was suggested by Aitchison, Gilchrist & Bawden 9 was undertaken. With the analysis of the publication, it was established that work related with the scope of this study was not listed in the publication. Further, coverage of Nanotechnology concepts in various sources like IET Inspec Thesaurus (2010), Library of Congress Subject Headings (32nd Ed. 2010), DDC 23rd edition, series of vocabulary documents developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), and publicly available Glossary of Nanotechnology Terms developed by The Institute of Nanotechnology were also explored. Analysis of these sources revealed very limited coverage of Nanotechnology aspects. With the aid of publicly available web resources, it was further explored that the scholarly works available on internet was confined to Bio-medical field and not with Physical sciences.

Regarding the subject specific ontology, there exists vast literature in the field. Smith & Ceusters 10 proposed ontology of biomedical informatics to overcome the difficulties appearing with different naming conventions for genes, proteins, and other molecular structures and to offer a standard terminology for the domain. Similarly, Biasiotti & Tiscornia 11 represented legal concepts in ontological framework to support understanding, re-use and sharing of knowledge in legal domain. Some other studies reflected the development of ontology in various other disciplines. Esbjorn-Hargens 25 proposed an ontology on climate change.

A study by Gokhale, Deokattey & Bhanumurthy 26 reported methodology for constructing sample domain ontology on energy amplifiers. As a source for keywords, INIS database was employed in the study.

In the same year, Thomas, Pappu & Baker 27 reported the designing and development of Nanoparticle Ontology (NPO), which is executed in Ontology Web Language (OWL). Further, to encode disease treatment information in machine readable environment, Khoo, Na, Wang and Chan 30 explained the development of ontology based on analysis of literature from the Medline database. Hastings, & et al., 29 presented developments of ontology in Chemistry. Similarly, Meenachi & Baba 30 discussed the development of ontology for representation of nuclear reactor knowledge. Keeping in view the need of the hour, the present study deals with the overview of Nanotechnology and designing an ontology, which consists of a semantic framework of Nanotechnology concepts that can be inferred explicitly both by machines and humans.

Scope of concepts of Nanotechnology ontology is limited to Physical Sciences in depth and touches other associated areas in broader sense. The term ‘ontology’ is frequently appearing in texts.

There exist several definitions for ontology: •In Philosophy perspective, ‘Ontology is the study of kind of things that exists’ 8. •In context of Computer Science, ‘It is a formal representation of the knowledge by a set of concepts within a domain and a relationships between those concepts’ 9. •In Library and information science perspective, ‘It is the field of information management that basically defines a common vocabulary for users who need to share information in a domain’ 10. Further, Guarino, Oberle & Staab 11 cited Studer, Benjamins & Fensel 12 to state that ontology is ‘a formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualisation’. This definition includes following characteristics of ontology: •Conceptualisation: ontology represents domain knowledge in a conceptual manner.

•Explicit: means that the type of concepts used and the constraints on their use are clearly defined. •Formal: domain knowledge encompassed in ontology should be machine readable. •Shared: ontology construction should be in shared agreement. Thus, after analysing these concepts, ontology can be inferred as, a system having its origin in Philosophy which involves categorisation of concepts in a field.

It proposes an improved environment with potential to organise, manage, semantically interpret and process data with the help of machines/ computers to facilitate human-machine-human communication. More precisely, ontology is a conceptual and machine executable model for a subject domain. Nguyen & Le-Thanh 13 listed following principal components of ontology: •Classes: represent a set of entities within a domain (general things). •Individuals/Instances: indicate the concrete example of concepts within the domain (individual things). •Attributes: properties those concepts/things may have. •Relations: specify the interaction among concepts.

•Axioms: assertions including rules in a logical form (imposing restrictions on establishing relations between concepts). Current web which grows from hypertext systems comprises of huge collection of interlinked documents. It offers freedom to all to contribute something.

With such an attitude, quality of information added to Internet and uniformity in information representation on internet, is not guaranteed. Thus, searching for information on the web is becoming increasingly complex. Expecting satisfactory solutions from traditional search engines is impractical. Download Manga Gantz Sub Indo.

In this situation, Semantic web proposes a layer of intelligence for gathering, sharing and distributing relevant information in a meaningful manner. Thus, semantic web is an attempt to provide extension to current web where information is meaningfully defined, processed with the help of machines, and people work in collaboration. The work of transforming web to semantic web can be carried out with the help of ontologies. Ontologies provide a structured framework for domain concepts, organise concepts in hierarchical and associative association that permits reasoning for knowledge.

Ontologies which are considered as core component of semantic web serve following purposes: •In comparison to other member tools of controlled vocabulary, ontologies offer more enriched relationship between domain concepts and are appropriate to support rich structured knowledge. •Offer provision to define metadata about resources which allow machines and human users to recognise, gather, process, and share relevant information semantically. •Show integration of information from various sources and supports agreed communication among diverse communities. •Allow interoperability and reuse of existing information The concept ‘Nanotechnology’ is a combination of two sub-concepts, i.e., ‘nano’ and ‘technology’. The prefix ‘nano’ was derived from the Greek word dwarf, which has been used since 1960 in the metric system 14. In scientific context, the scale ‘nano’ represents 10-9 where one nanometer is equivalent to one thousandth of a micrometer, one millionth of a millimeter, and one billionth of a meter.

It is the size where most of the fundamental chemical, physical, electrical properties of materials matched with those experienced at atomic and molecular scale like quantum effect, wave particle duality, etc. Further, describing the nature of properties at nanoscale, it was unanimously accepted that laws of Physics at nanoscale are governed both by classical as well as quantum mechanics 19, 20, 21. The second component of Nanotechnology, i.e., ‘technology’ which refers to the application of science into practical use to develop structures and tools that can solve the problems of the society. It holds true for Nanotechnology also as it is the technology at nanoscale having applications in the development of society. As stated by Filipponi and Sutherland 22, novel properties at nanoscale are due to the following physical changes: (i)Increased Surface to Volume Ratio: Breaking down of bulk material into number of nanomaterials resulted in increasing the collective surface area, whereas, its total volume remains the same. This feature could help in achieving unique surface activity, catalytic effect, sensing, etc.

(ii)Quantum Confinement: In nanostructured materials, electrons are confined in space and are not free to move in material. This is due to the fact that shrinking of bulk structure to nanoscale resulted in increase of band-gaps. This quantum effect results in altering the electronic and optical properties of materials. (iii) Random Molecular Motion: At macro level, size of object is comparatively large in comparison to the kinetic energy of molecules. Thus, the motion of molecules is not influential on how an object moves.

But, at nanoscale, molecular motion is comparable to the size of the particle and thus has great impact on how particle behaves. Nanotechnology is considered as one of the most revolutionary technology that has touched almost every aspect of mankind. It has promised great future for diverse areas. Some of them are listed here as under: (a)Agriculture: Nanotechnology helps in enhancing the crop productivity by imparting genetic improvement in crops. (b)Electronics and Communication: Cost effective and capable modes for recording of data, flat panel display, wireless communication technology, etc., are all due to the overwhelming research efforts in Nanotechnology. (c)Energy: Nanotechnology reduces dependency of mankind on fossil fuels by offering renewable energy solutions. It also proposes affordable and efficient energy storage and saving device like light emitting diodes (LEDS), etc.

(d)Machines: Overwhelming properties and prospects of nanoscale machines and engines offers notable benefits in terms of sustainable development, efficient working and energy saving. (e)Medicine: Nanotechnology increases the survival rate of human beings by providing improved biosensors, smart drugs, and advanced diagnostic imaging techniques. (f)Water purification: Detection and removal of impurities from water, and treatment of waste water through Nanotechnology provide potable water to all.

(g)Space exploration: Nanotechnology offers light weight, ultra-small and capable space vehicles. The period considered for the study was 2001-2012. To obtain adequate number of candidate terms following source categories were consulted: I. Printed Resources: Following categories of printed resources were consulted for term collection: (a) Encyclopedia • Nalwa, H.S.

Encyclopedia of nanoscience and nanotechnology. American Scientific Publishers, California, 2004. Kim 3838 & et al., suggested three methods to develop concept hierarchy: (a)Top-down approach: (From generalisation to specific) process begins with one or more general concepts in the domain and successively, it specialise the concepts. (b)Bottom-up approach: (From specialisation to generalisation) process begins with most specific concepts, with subsequent grouping of these classes into related general concepts. (c)Middle-out approach: (From most important concepts to generalisation and specialisation)under this approach most important domain concepts are extracted and then these are generalised or specialised as appropriate. Each concept has one or more properties that define its attribute. Properties of domain concepts need to be defined and documented.

Association between concepts denotes the meaningful relationships between concepts. Relationship marked between the concepts should explain how a concept is semantically related to another. In this sense, ontology lead over thesaurus, as in ontology, relationships are comparatively more refined and semantically enriched. According to Random House Webster’s Concise College Dictionary 39 formalise means ‘to make formal, especially for the sake of official or authorised acceptance: to formalise an agreement with a legal contract’.

In context of ontology, it refers to the process involved in making the sematic domain knowledge structure into machine readable form. For this transformation, there exist number of Web technologies to represent semantic knowledge structure into machine readable form, and ontology editors designed for creating and editing ontologies. • Web Technologies Discussing about the markup languages used in Semantic Web environment Zhang 40 cited Robu, Robu & Thirion 41 to mention the semantic web technologies employed during different intervals. As stated in the contribution, in the year 2001, XML (eXtensible Markup Language), and RDF (Resource Description Framework) were the two technologies used for the development of Semantic Web. The contributor further stated that in the year 2004, the revised RDF and OWL (Web Ontology Language) were the two technologies announced by W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) as the key technologies for Semantic Web.

By 2006, RDF, RDFS (RDF schema), and OWL were considered as the W3C approved semantic web technologies 42. In the present work, RDF has been utilised as a base for ontology creation.

• Ontology Editors These are the applications developed to support the development and manipulation of ontologies. Substantial efforts in this direction resulted in the appearance of number of tools worldwide. However, some of tools are available free on Web. Discussing the tools that can be used for implementing metadata for ontologies by using ontology languages Youn and McLeod 43 briefed several applications in their study- Protege 2000, OilEd, Apollo, RDFedt, OntoLingua, OntoEdit, WebODE, KAON, ICOM, DOE, WebOnto, Medius Visual Ontology Modeler, LinKFactory Workbench, and K-Infinity. Khondoker & Mueller 44 conducted a survey to compare various ontology development tools. This comparative study covered Protege, SWOOP, Internet Business Logic, Top Brand Composer, Onto Track, and IHMC Cmap ontology editors, for analysis. While discussing ontology development methodologies along with tools and languages used in ontology construction, Mizoguchi 45 discussed Onto Edit, WebODE, Protege, and Hozo in the contribution.

Similarly, Gokhale, Deokattey & Bhanumurthy 46 have discussed various tools and methods for developing ontology in their study. The study listed Ontolingua, WebOnto and Cys under ontology development tools. Further, while discussing the role of ontology in semantic web,1iri 47 covered Protege, DOME, Knoodl, and Onto Edit in his work. To retrieve the semantic word map of Nanotechnology in RDF format, nMap application which was developed specifically for the study was employed. The application nMap is a graphical user interface (GUI) software that uses VB.Net as front-end tool and MS-Access as back-end tool.

As compared to the other existing ontology editors, nMap is more user friendly and can be used by a person with little computer knowledge. NMap offers the following features: •Term Relationship: This feature helps in defining and displaying various semantic relationships between terms.

It also offers flexibility to add new associations between terms, i.e., property, attribute, characteristic, etc. The study comes out with Nanotechnology ontology in RDF framework for which semantic structure of around 2585 Nanotechnology terms was utilised in combination with nMap software. The tool offers a semantic knowledge structure to Nanotechnology researchers in machine readable environment.

Further, development of ontology in RDF format serve interoperability and will further support semantic interpretation by machines to facilitate human understanding. To establish quality assurance for RDF structure that appeared as the outcome of ontology, World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) RDF validation platform was approached. This W3C platform helps in attaining structural validation for RDF syntax. In the following section ontology samples for two Nanotechnology concepts, i.e., ‘contact free measurement’ and ‘nano scopes’ are represented in distinct formats, i.e., RDF XML Syntax, RDF Triplet Table, and RDF Triplet Graph. (a) RDF XML Syntax. Amount of Nanotechnology information that is appearing and added daily on Web make it difficult for scholars to retrieve all the relevant information.

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New Generation Comp., 2004, 22(1), 61-96. Role of ontology in semantic web. Tech., 2011, 31(2), 116-20. Mr Abhishek Sharma is working as Scientist in CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi.

He obtained his PG in Physics, and Library & Information Science. In 2011, he was awarded ‘SIS Young Information Scientist’ Award. INTRODUCTION 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 3. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE 4.

ONTOLOGY 4.1 Ontology Components 4.2 Importance of Ontology 5. OVERVIEW OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 5.1Properties at the Nanoscale 5.2Role of Nanotechnology 6.METHODOLOGY 6.1 Collection of Terms 6.2Data Cleaning and Evaluation of Candidate Terms 6.3Development of Semantic Structure in form of Nanotechnology Thesaurus 6.3.1 Preferred Term Selection 6.3.2 Semantic Relationships between Concepts 6.3.3 Standards and Guidelines 7.ONTOLOGY ENGINEERING 7.1 Concept Naming 7.2 Concept Hierarchy 7.3 Concept’s Property and Concept Association 7.4 Formalisation 8.DEVELOPING NANOTECHNOLOGY ONTOLOGY BY USING ‘nMap’ SOFTWARE 8.1 Features of nMap 9. FINDINGS 10.EVALUATION OF RDF SYNTAX 11.SAMPLES OF ONTOLOGY 11.1 Contact Free Measurement 11.2 Nano scopes 12. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES Contibutor.

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